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Everything below the larynx and, arguably, to the soles of our feet, contributes to the creation of power for voice use. The muscles of the torso that surround and support the lungs, however, are the primary breathing muscles. Although these large torso muscles impact the amount of air pressure that meets the vocal folds (e.g. "subglottic pressure"), the vocal folds manage the airflow (e.g. "glottal resistance"). As Johan Sundberg says: “An increase in subglottic pressure leads to an increase in the airflow. However, this is true only if a third factor is kept constant, namely, the so-called glottal resistance, which is the resistance against airflow through the glottis (Johan Sundberg, The Science of Singing. 1987, pg 38.)
In the complicated reality of the voice, our resonator significantly influences the vocal folds by creating acoustic back pressure. The acoustic elements of the voice, therefore, have direct impact on the breath mechanism too (see Acoustic Registration). The muscles of the power source create pressure that sets the vocal folds in motion. That pressure also influences the vocal folds’ ability to manage airflow. With this knowledge, we can alter our thinking about the breathing muscles, and begin to think of them as influencers instead of the more common belief that they are managers. Changing our language from "breath support" to "breath pressure" and adding "acoustic support" to the mix sets our mental stage for new questions and discoveries. |
For the singing instrument, the breathing
mechanism is the power source, equal to the arm when playing a stringed or percussion instrument. To read more about the concept of "Appoggio" breathing, visit our "Appoggio" page. |
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Since the breathing process involves the largest muscles used in phonation, it often gets significant attention in voice training. Anyone who has studied for more than a few years has encountered a number of approaches to breathing which might include use of a weight belt, pressing against walls, bending over, “pushing from the diaphragm”, squeezing abdominal muscles, pushing out and away from the belly, holding ribs out, etc.
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The body tends to know what it needs to do to breathe. In fact, a large part of breathing happens superfluous of voluntary muscle engagement. The lungs operate in relationship to the air around us, creating pressure vacuums that move air in and out.
The pressure created by these vacuums is known as pleural pressure. 
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When voice users coordinate their breathing muscles, they tend to say that they don’t feel much at all, or that their breath feels easy. Of equal interest, when vocal folds more efficiently manage airflow, voice users tend to report feelings of "breath support." Far from a passive approach to breathing, training the muscles to engage optimally requires the joint practice of awareness and coordination.
Muscles of inspiration
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When breath enters our bodies, the optimal muscular interaction includes:
Contraction of the diaphragm (lowering and flattening): as the diaphragm contracts, pleural pressure (the pressure surrounding the lungs) drops, thereby creating a vacuum, into which air from outside of the body rushes to fill. Note that air isn’t “taken”, it simply responds to the decrease in pressure, and fills the space. Contraction of the external intercostals (between the ribs): this allows for the ribs to expand up and out, making more room for air to fill the lungs. Contraction of certain abdominal muscles: during inspiration, this feels like an expansion of the abdomen, and aids in optimizing the diaphragm, spinal stability, and posture. There are many different sensations that can be associated with the abdominal muscles during breathing including tightness (pulling in), pressure (pushing out), pinpointed, jabbing sensation (when leaning back), deflated back, muffin bulge (when leaning forward), etc. As you learn to allow your body to maximize on its breath potential, the sensations will range from an awareness of expansion to an opening, freeing sensation. Often, attention to other parts of the body help to free respiration muscles to achieve their task with efficiency. 
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Engaging the diaphragm represents an involuntary muscular activity, though the diaphragm itself is made up of voluntary muscle fibers. That means it can neither be felt or directly controlled, but that we can create conditions that guide its engagement. One can not "breathe from the diaphragm."
The diaphragm separates the entire chest cavity from the entire abdominal cavity.
The intercostals are muscles in between the ribs that help the ribs expand during inhalation. The lungs cannot move on their own without the ribs.
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muscles of expirationThese muscles are engaged over time, as the breath exits the body, and become more engaged as the vacuum around the lungs diminishes, and needs increased muscular activity to maintain steady airflow. These are powerful muscles with the capacity to contract forcefully to expel air quickly during strenuous exercise. When using the voice, their power presents a challenge. If they contract too quickly, they create intense breath pressure that the vocal folds then have to find a way to manage. Engagement of any of these muscles increases pressure on the vocal folds. None of them have the capacity to stabilize or support with the possible exception of the lowest belly of the rectus abdominis. This muscle has the capacity to counterbalance the contraction of other abdominal muscles. See our appoggio page for more.
Contraction of internal intercostals (between the ribs): this allows for the rib cage to decrease in size. Contraction of abdominal muscles: this further increases muscular pressure on the lungs. Contraction of oblique muscles: these muscles connect to the lower part of the rib cage, and pull the ribs downward and compress the abdominal compartment. When singers are aware of these muscles, and invited to notice steady muscular involvement, they tend to find that the muscles increase resistance as needed. Intentional or strenuous engagement of the abdominal and oblique muscles tends to create too much breath pressure for the vocal folds to manage efficiently. Note that the diaphragm plays no active role in expiration. |
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Over the course of a singer’s breath, Ingo Titze has charted three phases (Titze, Principals of Voice Production pg. 72).
During the first phase, the pleural pressure (surrounding the lungs) is the primary actor in expiration. During the second phase, as pleural pressure decreases, muscular pressure increases, and during the third phase, muscular pressure predominates. If a singer finds themselves in a situation where they feel like they are “pushing” in order to keep air flowing, they are probably in need of a new breath. |
body centering and awareness
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People tend toward habituated seating and standing postures that require more work for our muscles than needed.
We often create more muscle tension by trying to enforce postural language like “stand tall”, “push shoulders back”, “raise the breast bone”, etc. These habituations will feel centered, because it’s what people know, but, once they discover a sensation of centering that relies on the fewest muscles needed to remain upright, they will notice a distinct difference. The larger muscles of the body keep us from falling over. If we are centered, they rest, if we are not centered, they engage to keep us from falling. This includes the muscles of the back, abdomen, torso, neck, thighs, hips, tongue, jaw and more. Imagine that all of those muscles are focused on keeping the body upright. How well do you think they will accomplish the secondary task of supporting sustained airflow to create sound? 
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Guiding voice users into awareness of the muscles used in breathing creates a meaningful template for a singer’s breath. This is an awareness experience focused on the breath. It can be practiced daily. Attention can be brought to different muscles and focal points as desired.
1) To begin, ask the vocalist(s) to close their eyes and notice their breath. Ask them to notice their feet pressing down against the earth, as the earth presses back against them. Ask them to notice that the inhale is energizing, and that the out breath is calming. Breath has neurological function. Inhales excite the sympathetic nervous system into action, and the out breath engages the parasympathetic nervous system to induce calm. As a person goes through their day, their bodies energize and calm multiple times every minute.
2) Ask them to notice that the out breath is four to five times longer than the inhale. That gives them space to notice the value of the calm that comes from the out breath, and gives them time to align that sensation with the calm they can feel while sustaining notes. We use the phrase "the energizing inhale sending your energy into the floor, and the long, calming exhale bringing energy back to you from the room." (notice that this is opposite of what many people might intuit. As the breath comes in, we feel the energy leaving and as the breath leaves, we feel the energy coming into us. This opposite is essential for feeling the breath as inspiration for motion/engagement.)
3) Ask them to notice their tongue and let it float to the roof of their mouth and rest there lightly. With the tongue on the roof of the mouth, the jaw muscles can release, the neck muscles can expand outward, and the shoulders can drop toward the floor. Ask them to bring awareness to the reality that their head is in motion on the tip of their spine. Then ask them to allow tiny circles to develop at their ankles to mirror the motion of their head. Like little hula hoops. While their ankles circle, ask them to notice how their weight shifts on their feet.
4) Ask them to allow circles to develop at their knees, like they have a new hula hoop. And then at their shoulders, but in an opposite orbit from the knees. And then at the hips and ribs in opposite orbits. They now have six hula hoops going.
5) While in motion, ask them to bring awareness to the lower part of their spine as it rotates all around, and to the abdominal muscles, asking if they are freeing into the breath. Add others if you like.
6) While in motion, ask them to glide across their range in whatever ways their voice would like to. Their goal is to pay attention to their body, and to what it feels like to phonate on the long, calming exhale.
7) After phonating, ask them to allow their body motion to calm, but remember that their bodies are always in motion. Then ask them to bring awareness to their eyes, to notice the light and dark patches that they see with their eyes closed. Ask them to picture the room as it will look when their eyes open. When they are ready, open their eyes and let the light of the room come to them.
Increasing awareness of one's body is a life-long experience, changes regularly, and is one that most vocal lessons and ensemble rehearsals have limited time for. The time that you receive from implementing short awareness training like this comes back in multitudes. Awareness tools create connection with self and others. They are the core of artistry.
1) To begin, ask the vocalist(s) to close their eyes and notice their breath. Ask them to notice their feet pressing down against the earth, as the earth presses back against them. Ask them to notice that the inhale is energizing, and that the out breath is calming. Breath has neurological function. Inhales excite the sympathetic nervous system into action, and the out breath engages the parasympathetic nervous system to induce calm. As a person goes through their day, their bodies energize and calm multiple times every minute.
2) Ask them to notice that the out breath is four to five times longer than the inhale. That gives them space to notice the value of the calm that comes from the out breath, and gives them time to align that sensation with the calm they can feel while sustaining notes. We use the phrase "the energizing inhale sending your energy into the floor, and the long, calming exhale bringing energy back to you from the room." (notice that this is opposite of what many people might intuit. As the breath comes in, we feel the energy leaving and as the breath leaves, we feel the energy coming into us. This opposite is essential for feeling the breath as inspiration for motion/engagement.)
3) Ask them to notice their tongue and let it float to the roof of their mouth and rest there lightly. With the tongue on the roof of the mouth, the jaw muscles can release, the neck muscles can expand outward, and the shoulders can drop toward the floor. Ask them to bring awareness to the reality that their head is in motion on the tip of their spine. Then ask them to allow tiny circles to develop at their ankles to mirror the motion of their head. Like little hula hoops. While their ankles circle, ask them to notice how their weight shifts on their feet.
4) Ask them to allow circles to develop at their knees, like they have a new hula hoop. And then at their shoulders, but in an opposite orbit from the knees. And then at the hips and ribs in opposite orbits. They now have six hula hoops going.
5) While in motion, ask them to bring awareness to the lower part of their spine as it rotates all around, and to the abdominal muscles, asking if they are freeing into the breath. Add others if you like.
6) While in motion, ask them to glide across their range in whatever ways their voice would like to. Their goal is to pay attention to their body, and to what it feels like to phonate on the long, calming exhale.
7) After phonating, ask them to allow their body motion to calm, but remember that their bodies are always in motion. Then ask them to bring awareness to their eyes, to notice the light and dark patches that they see with their eyes closed. Ask them to picture the room as it will look when their eyes open. When they are ready, open their eyes and let the light of the room come to them.
Increasing awareness of one's body is a life-long experience, changes regularly, and is one that most vocal lessons and ensemble rehearsals have limited time for. The time that you receive from implementing short awareness training like this comes back in multitudes. Awareness tools create connection with self and others. They are the core of artistry.
Connecting breath to phrase
When carbon dioxide builds up in the lungs, the body has a set response to exhale fully and inhale again. This carbon dioxide trigger is the primary reason that singers feel like they run out of air. Sometimes it even induces a tiny panic. Singers rarely sing a line longer than 20 seconds. Free divers can stay underwater for upwards of 5 minutes. The world record is a half hour without inhaling. They do this by slowly training their bodies that they are ok without the regular exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen. As the inhale trigger gets expanded, the musculature necessary to manage the new realities learn their roles.
One of the hardest parts of voice use is maintaining consistent breath pressure over the course of a phrase. Titze’s lung pressure diagram above shows the trade off between the pleural and muscular pressure over time. Asking a voice user to feel this exchange is like asking them to pick up a toothpick with their hair. Alerting the centered body to the desired goal, however, tends to do the trick. Here are a few exercises that we’ve found helpful. They all have to do with visualizing the length of a phrase and asking the body to have enough air to sing the whole of it.
When carbon dioxide builds up in the lungs, the body has a set response to exhale fully and inhale again. This carbon dioxide trigger is the primary reason that singers feel like they run out of air. Sometimes it even induces a tiny panic. Singers rarely sing a line longer than 20 seconds. Free divers can stay underwater for upwards of 5 minutes. The world record is a half hour without inhaling. They do this by slowly training their bodies that they are ok without the regular exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen. As the inhale trigger gets expanded, the musculature necessary to manage the new realities learn their roles.
One of the hardest parts of voice use is maintaining consistent breath pressure over the course of a phrase. Titze’s lung pressure diagram above shows the trade off between the pleural and muscular pressure over time. Asking a voice user to feel this exchange is like asking them to pick up a toothpick with their hair. Alerting the centered body to the desired goal, however, tends to do the trick. Here are a few exercises that we’ve found helpful. They all have to do with visualizing the length of a phrase and asking the body to have enough air to sing the whole of it.
12-count breath and 8-count pulse
The next step is to engage the body more fully to build awareness of muscular engagement. Have them breathe in over 12 counts, and then pulse (on [ʒ], [s], [h], etc.) for 8 counts, engaging their abdomen as fully as possible on the pulses. Increase the intake to 16, 20, etc. counts. Although a voice user’s breath doesn’t involve this kind of aggressive muscle contraction, this exercise helps singers connect to their bodies and breath mechanism. As breathing habits develop, this more conscious approach can be altered by using jumping jacks, which will engage less conscious breath mechanism engagement, and free the conscious mind from perceived control.
The next step is to engage the body more fully to build awareness of muscular engagement. Have them breathe in over 12 counts, and then pulse (on [ʒ], [s], [h], etc.) for 8 counts, engaging their abdomen as fully as possible on the pulses. Increase the intake to 16, 20, etc. counts. Although a voice user’s breath doesn’t involve this kind of aggressive muscle contraction, this exercise helps singers connect to their bodies and breath mechanism. As breathing habits develop, this more conscious approach can be altered by using jumping jacks, which will engage less conscious breath mechanism engagement, and free the conscious mind from perceived control.
The dropping arm
Raise your arm above your head. Over the course of the phrase, slowly lower the arm in an arc such that at the end of the phrase, the arm is even with your legs. Choose the arm-lowering tempo before you begin, and try not to speed up or slow down. If the phrase ends and your arm is not flush with your leg, try again with a different tempo.
Raise your arm above your head. Over the course of the phrase, slowly lower the arm in an arc such that at the end of the phrase, the arm is even with your legs. Choose the arm-lowering tempo before you begin, and try not to speed up or slow down. If the phrase ends and your arm is not flush with your leg, try again with a different tempo.
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The mental image
Look at the phrase on the page or sing/speak it in your head. Conceptualize the phrase as a spatial mental image such that you can “see” the whole phrase in front of you as you sing/speak. Maintain awareness of the whole phrase the entire time you are singing/speaking. |
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Walking the Line
Line up on one side of the room and choose a spot on each wall that is slightly higher than their eye level. Walk back and forth across the room, paying attention that the bottom of your torso (which starts below the hips) rests over the front, moving foot. Once you have a general conception of that sensation (and its impact on your body awareness, especially your neck and head), walk across the room singing/speaking the phrase. Prior to beginning, ask your body the simple directive “please take me to the opposite wall”. If the room isn’t long enough for the full phrase, turn around and head the other way. |
The torso begins below the hips, the waist is a creation of the fashion industry.
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What We Avoid
We tend to avoid the idea of “taking” a breath, or “holding” breath, or “pushing”, “pulling”, or otherwise consciously attempting to make the body do anything. These kinds of words reinforce the idea of “work” that is a trick of consciousness, and can lead to excessive amounts of breath pressure and physical discomfort. We proceed from the belief that if you can feel your abdomen engaging forcefully, you’re probably overburdening the vocal folds.
The most efficient breath feels freeing.
The Diaphragm and Diaphragm Mythology
The diaphragm is a unique muscle. It dissects the entire body in the center, is one of only
two muscles that does not mirror itself, and it connects to the spine at our center. Some traditional language dealing with the diaphragm and its role in breathing, have developed in ways that can be misleading to how people relate to their bodies.
The concept of “breathing from the diaphragm” creates a misunderstanding of that muscle, as it suggests that the diaphragm is active during expiration and that the voice user can feel the diaphragm and has direct control over it. There is no science to support these claims. Contraction of the muscle happens during inspiration wherein the diaphragm lowers and flattens. This cannot be directly felt or directly controlled by the conscious mind. As the lungs get smaller during expiration, the diaphragm releases, creating an upward dome shape by the end of the expiration cycle.
Although we can not directly control the diaphragm, actions that we take can influence how the diaphragm engages. Abdominal muscle contraction, and contraction of intercostal muscles (in between the ribs) can alter how the diaphragm functions. If other muscles contract, the diaphragm can't fully flatten out, and remains somewhat domed during inspiration. This action creates lower breath capacity in the lungs.
Several authors have discussed observable instances where the diaphragm contracted during expiration. Thomas Hixon, in Respiratory Function In Singing (2006), is one of the first to make the above assertions clear. After discussing examples of the kinds of events discussed above, he cautions that "The discussion above does not suggest a major role for the diaphragm in extended steady singing. "
Another important and overlooked aspect of the diaphragm for vocalists rests in its function as a gastrointestinal muscle. When the diaphragm is constricted such that it can't fully expand, it squeezes, creating complication to its GI functions. By contracting abdominal muscles during phonation we create conditions for GI distress. So many singers have been diagnosed with reflux and IBS. There is a potential correlation between whether we allow our bodies to breathe, and the GI distress that so many of us endure that is worth bringing to your doctor and into your practice.
The following two articles explore this more fully:
Pickering, Mark and James Jones. The Diaphragm: Two Physiological Muscles In One. Journal of Anatomy, October, 2022.
Bordoni, Bruno and Bruno Morabito. Symptomatology Correlations Between The Diaphragm and Irritable Bowel Syndrome. Cureus, July 2018.
We tend to avoid the idea of “taking” a breath, or “holding” breath, or “pushing”, “pulling”, or otherwise consciously attempting to make the body do anything. These kinds of words reinforce the idea of “work” that is a trick of consciousness, and can lead to excessive amounts of breath pressure and physical discomfort. We proceed from the belief that if you can feel your abdomen engaging forcefully, you’re probably overburdening the vocal folds.
The most efficient breath feels freeing.
The Diaphragm and Diaphragm Mythology
The diaphragm is a unique muscle. It dissects the entire body in the center, is one of only
two muscles that does not mirror itself, and it connects to the spine at our center. Some traditional language dealing with the diaphragm and its role in breathing, have developed in ways that can be misleading to how people relate to their bodies.
The concept of “breathing from the diaphragm” creates a misunderstanding of that muscle, as it suggests that the diaphragm is active during expiration and that the voice user can feel the diaphragm and has direct control over it. There is no science to support these claims. Contraction of the muscle happens during inspiration wherein the diaphragm lowers and flattens. This cannot be directly felt or directly controlled by the conscious mind. As the lungs get smaller during expiration, the diaphragm releases, creating an upward dome shape by the end of the expiration cycle.
Although we can not directly control the diaphragm, actions that we take can influence how the diaphragm engages. Abdominal muscle contraction, and contraction of intercostal muscles (in between the ribs) can alter how the diaphragm functions. If other muscles contract, the diaphragm can't fully flatten out, and remains somewhat domed during inspiration. This action creates lower breath capacity in the lungs.
Several authors have discussed observable instances where the diaphragm contracted during expiration. Thomas Hixon, in Respiratory Function In Singing (2006), is one of the first to make the above assertions clear. After discussing examples of the kinds of events discussed above, he cautions that "The discussion above does not suggest a major role for the diaphragm in extended steady singing. "
Another important and overlooked aspect of the diaphragm for vocalists rests in its function as a gastrointestinal muscle. When the diaphragm is constricted such that it can't fully expand, it squeezes, creating complication to its GI functions. By contracting abdominal muscles during phonation we create conditions for GI distress. So many singers have been diagnosed with reflux and IBS. There is a potential correlation between whether we allow our bodies to breathe, and the GI distress that so many of us endure that is worth bringing to your doctor and into your practice.
The following two articles explore this more fully:
Pickering, Mark and James Jones. The Diaphragm: Two Physiological Muscles In One. Journal of Anatomy, October, 2022.
Bordoni, Bruno and Bruno Morabito. Symptomatology Correlations Between The Diaphragm and Irritable Bowel Syndrome. Cureus, July 2018.
"3D illustration X-ray transparent lungs" photo courtesy of yodiyim at FreeDigitalPhotos.net.
"3D illustration respiratory system" photo courtesy of yodiyim at FreeDigitalPhotos.net.
Disclaimer: We have tried to give credit to all of the images that we've used that are not our own, or believe them to be in public domain.
If you see something that is yours that you feel is being used without proper permission, please let us know and we will gladly credit you or remove it. Thanks for your help!
"3D illustration respiratory system" photo courtesy of yodiyim at FreeDigitalPhotos.net.
Disclaimer: We have tried to give credit to all of the images that we've used that are not our own, or believe them to be in public domain.
If you see something that is yours that you feel is being used without proper permission, please let us know and we will gladly credit you or remove it. Thanks for your help!
